ANTONETTE'S PAPER
History of Adult Education: The 1960's
Antonette Payne
January 27, 2014
The History of Adult Education: the 1960’s
The 1960’s was a
decade of change in the United States. The headlines were filled with stories
about the Civil Rights Act, Assassination of President John F. Kennedy and
Martin Luther King, Jr., Stonewall, and Vietnam. These dramatic changes in our
society gave rise to changes in every aspect of American life including adult
education. In order to understand the
changes that took place in adult education it is important understand the
social and political context of the times. This paper will examine the
background of the 1960’s, highlight major developments in adult education
including the influential factors, and finally examine the implications these
developments had on adult education.
INTRODUCTION
To understand the
developments in adult education, it is important to first look at the
background that influenced those developments. The 1960’s was a decade of great
change socially, politically, and economically. Each of the aspects paved the
way for change in adult education.
In 1961, President
John F. Kennedy took office (The 1960's, 2014). He had great
ambitions of laws and reforms to eliminate injustice and inequalities in the
United States. Shortly after taking office he signed Executive Order 10924
establishing the Peace Corps (Statement Upon Signing Order Establishing the Peace Corps, March 1,
1961, 2014).
In its first year the Peace Corps sent over 500 volunteers to nine host
countries (History: 1960's, 2014). Unfortunately his life and presidency was cut
short when he was assassinated November 22, 1963.
President Lyndon
B. Johnson was sworn in after President Kennedy’s death. President Johnson was
able to use this tragedy to get many of the programs that Kennedy had
championed enacted with the idea that we would create the “Great Society.” After
declaring a “War on Poverty,” President Johnson was able to use his political
capital to establish Medicaid, Medicare, Head Start, VISTA, and Job Corps (The 1960's, 2014). He was also able to
pass the Voting Rights Act of 1965 in an effort to end disenfranchisement of
minority citizens in regards to voting (History of Federal Voting Rights Laws, 2014).
In addition to the
War on Poverty, the United States saw the conflict in Vietnam escalate and the
Civil Rights movement explode. Both events were the cause of many protests and
riots and influenced many of the policies that were put forth during the
1960’s. The expense of the war in
Vietnam, both financial and in morale, derailed many of the promising programs.
The Civil Rights Movement also split the country. The decade ended with the
assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr and Bobby Kennedy and the Stonewall
riots (The 1960's, 2014). Although it was a decade of many positive
changes there was still much that needed to be done to bring the country
together.
HIGHLIGHTS IN ADULT
EDUCATION LEGISLATION
Although there
were many changes in adult education outside of legislation, this paper will
focus on the legislative aspects of the highlights of adult education in the
1960’s as many new laws were passed during this decade. These laws lead to some
of the changes that occurred and affected many areas in adult education and
society as a whole.
Like many areas of
American society, Adult education was experiencing changes in the 1960s. Many
but not all of these changes occurred through legislation passed during the Kennedy
and Johnson Administration. Some of the key legislation passed under President
Kennedy and later President Johnson included The Manpower Training and
Development Act of 1962 which sought to help develop training programs for
unemployed workers; (Rose, 1991)
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 which prohibited
discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin
including in educational settings (Recess Reading: An Occasional Feature From The Judiciary Committee,
2014);
The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 including Title IIB the Adult Basic
Education Program which was established to combat unemployment and poverty (Rose, 1991); The Higher
Education Act of 1965 which created the first federally funded college
scholarships (The Early History of the Higher
Education Act of 1965, 2014); and finally the
Adult Education Act of 1966 which expanded on the programs and funding under
the Adult Basic Education Act (Rose, 1991).
Manpower Training and Development Act of 1962
One of the first
adult education legislation of the 1960’s was the Manpower Training and
Development Act of 1962 (MTDA). Despite
the nation’s general recovery from the Great Depression, unemployment rates did
not return to the pre-recession levels. By the 1960’s unemployment was at 11%
for those unemployed for 27 weeks or more. Federal and State legislators did
studies to try and find a remedy for the widespread unemployment. The MTDA was
to help with recovery by training workers unemployed because of the changes in
automation and technology (Kremen, 2014).
Economic Opportunity Act of 1964
The MDTA failed to
help the long-term unemployed and it was thought it was because they had poor
skills. The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 (EOA) was signed by President
Johnson in August 1964 and included provisions about community action and
development, job training and education.
It required local and community control of the programs although it was
federally funded (Rose, 1991).
Part
of the EOA was Title IIB which was the Adult Basic Education Program (ABE). The Program was originally authorized through
the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) under Sargent Shriver but was
administered through the Office of Education within the Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare (HEW). The Act provided federal grants to the states to
develop pilot instructional programs for adults and appropriate teaching
methods (Rose, 1991). During the first
year only 14 states had received funding but all states had submitted plans and
received funding by 1966.
Higher Education Act of 1965
In November of
1965, President Johnson signed another important education law, the Higher
Education Act of 1965. The goal of the Act was to provide post-secondary and
higher education opportunities for lower and middle income families. It also
provided assistance to smaller colleges in need and provided resources to help
colleges and universities deal with national problems such as poverty and
community development (The Early History of the Higher Education Act of 1965, 2014).
Adult Education Act of 1966
Title IIB: The
Adult Basic Education Program (ABE) was up for renewal in 1966 and changed to
the Adult Education Act (AEA). The program was transferred to the US Office of
Education (USOE) and was hailed as landmark legislation in adult education. The
Act was the first time the federal government gave direct support of adult
education other than for vocational or job training (Rose, 1991).
The renewed Act
included education that focused on parenting and citizenry. It allowed for
special projects such as teacher training, community action, and poverty
programs. To meet the needs of these programs ABE teacher training programs
were also established. Although they had been started in 1965, the ABE prior to
renewal did not provide for funding for these teacher trainings. In 1968 it was
amended and extended and allowed for private nonprofit agencies to be eligible
for state grants (Rose, 1991).
CONCLUSION
The political
climate of the 1960’s lead to legislation with the goal of creating a “Great
Society.” The turmoil of the time
including the conflict in Vietnam, Cuban Missile Crisis, and the Civil Rights
Movement created speed bumps in this “Great” plan but it did give a foundation
for adult education programs. Many of the legislation in the 1960’s was to
achieve the “Great Society” by dealing with the economic downturn and to reduce
poverty and unemployment. Whether these programs have been successful has been debated
but the vision behind them was inspirational.
Many of the
programs around today are due to the legislation passed in the 1960’s. Because
of legislation like the Adult Education Act of 1966 and its predecessor
legislation, every state in the United States and its territories has some type
of adult education program. These programs range from basic high equivalency
and include trade schools, continuing education classes, distance learning
classes, and degree programs. In addition with the Higher Education Act and its
renewals many Americans can afford to participate in these programs because of
financial assistance. It also created job through the establishment of state
and local bureaucracies to oversee the funding of the programs.
Some of the adult
education programs available today include Women Infants and Children (WIC)
which provides nutrition, parenting and breastfeeding classes; First Aid and
CPR classes available through the Red Cross and similar organizations; Suicide
Prevention training for educators and community organizations that deal with
teens; GED® classes; ESL/ELL classes for non-native English speakers;
citizenship classes provided by Catholic Charities and similar organizations;
and many more programs that receive funding to provide adult education both for
community and vocational skills.
There has also
been an increase in some of the programs established in the 1960’s that provide
adult education including the Peace Corps and Vista programs. Literacy programs
established under the ABE have decreased the number or adults in the United
States who are illiterate. While these programs have not eliminated poverty and
unemployment they have created a workforce with greater technological skills
and more informed citizens. The 1960’s was a decade of change and one of those
changes was in adult education.
Areas
|
Summary
|
Social Factors
|
* Civil Rights Movement
* Poverty and unemployment
|
Highlights
|
*Man Power Training and
Development Act of 1962
* Economic Opportunity Act of
1964 *Higher Education Act of 1965
*Adult Basic Education Act of 1966
|
Influential Factors
|
* Kennedy Assassination
* “War on Poverty”
* Civil Rights Movement
* Unemployment and Poverty during
economic growth
|
Implications
|
* Access to adult education
programs in every state.
*Funding for programs and
participants.
*Increased skill level of
American workers.
* Lower number of adults who are
illiterate.
|
References
History of Federal Voting Rights Laws. (2014, January 25). Retrieved from United States
Department of Justice: http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/vot/intro/intro_b.php
History: 1960's. (2014, January 25). Retrieved from Peace Corps:
http://www.peacecorps.gov/about/history/decades/1960/
Kremen, G. R. (2014, January 26). MDTA: The
Origins of the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962. Retrieved
from United States Department of Labor:
http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/mono-mdtatext.htm
Recess Reading: An Occasional Feature From The
Judiciary Committee. (2014, January
25). Retrieved from United States Senate Committee on Judiciary:
http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/about/history/CivilRightsAct.cfm
Rose, A. D. (1991). Ends or Means: An Overview of
the History of the Adult Education Act. Columbus: ERIC Clearing House on
Adult, Career and Vocational Education, Center on .
Statement Upon Signing Order Establishing the Peace
Corps, March 1, 1961.
(2014,
January 25). Retrieved from John F. Kennedy Library and Museum:
http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/2DfDYdJEAE65QLj6otQQkQ.aspx
The 1960's.
(2014, January 25). Retrieved from History.com:
http://www.history.com/topics/1960s.
The Early History of the Higher Education Act of
1965. (2014, January 26).
Retrieved
from Pell Institute:
http://www.pellinstitute.org/downloads/trio_clearinghouse-The%20Early%20History%20of%20the%20Higher%20Education%20Act%20of%201965.pdf
KATIE FERGUSON'S PAPER
Katie Ferguson commented on: Group 4 Keith Cozart and Group 2 Petra DavisonAdult Education in the 1930s
Katie
Ferguson
Ball
State University
Introduction
In order to understand the history of adult education in
the 1930s, one must first understand the context of the time period. The decade
of the 1930’s is one that most American’s remember as a struggle filled with
hard times and events. According to Henretta, Brody, & Dumenil (2006, p.
723), “The 1930’s are remembered in terms of breadlines and hobos, dust bowl
devastation and hapless migrants piled into dilapidated jalopies.” One of the
major events that cannot be ignored in the 1930’s is the Great Depression. On
what is now known as “Black Thursday” (October 24, 1929) the stock market
crashed. This caused several families and businesses to lose jobs. The Great Depression
caused many men to be out seeking jobs while women’s roles mostly remained the
same, even becoming more important. Women served as consumers, workers, and
housewives during this time, providing in ways for the family that were not
typical. Minorities suffered and were marginalized even more than in previous
years by often being the last hired and the first fired (Henretta et. al.,
2006, p. 732). The Great Depression did not stop students from attending
college; however, it did lessen opportunities for employment after
college.
In
many towns, unions were organizing labor strikes. Some strikes even turned
violent and drew national attention. Fueling the Great Depression was also what
is known now as the Dust Bowl. The Dust Bowl was an ecological disaster that
took place in the Great Plains. The Dust Bowl was caused by stripped lands and
drought, the worst in our nation’s history. Without the ability to grow and
sell crops, many families had to leave their home and head West. This added to
misplaced, homeless, and poor families during this period of time in the United
States (Henretta et. al., 2006).
After
three years of the depression, 1933 brought on a new presidential candidate,
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who was loved by many as the replacement for Herbert
Hoover. Roosevelt used the radio to connect to the American people and to
educate about our nation. One of Roosevelt’s most important contributions to
the decade was the New Deal. During the New Deal, Roosevelt tackled economic
and agricultural problems by passing legislature that helped to provide relief
and jobs. Some citizens however, felt that the New Deal did not go far enough
and wasn’t sufficient. Roosevelt then created the Second New Deal in 1935 where
he signed Social Security Act and spurred the labor movement, among other
important events (Henretta et. al., 2006). The 1930s brought many challenges to
the American citizens. All of these challenges impacted adult education by
creating new needs for the American people.
Highlights
and Influential Factors
Terminology
After
World War I during the 1930s, several events happened that shaped the history
of adult education. Prior to the 1930s the term adult education was not even
concrete in America and hadn’t been fully defined. According to Stubblefield
and Rachal (as cited in Merriam & Brockett, 2006, p.9) there were three
events occurring after WWI that made the term more accepted and known: “a
British publication reviewing the status of adult education was published, the
World Association for Adult Education was formed, and the Carnegie Corporation
became actively involved in establishing the field of adult education.” All of
these events and institutions significantly impacted the field of education.
Not only was “adult education” a new term and idea, but also scholars began
examining pedagogy verse andragogy. Pedagogy was a term that educators used to
describe youth learning. Andragogy, or adult learning, was a theory that was
just beginning to be fully formed and understood. Knowles (1980) writes that
during the early twentieth century educators began to stop making assumptions
about education for all people and theorize about different learning
ideologies. Knowles (1980, p.41) explains, “Between 1929 and 1948 the Journal of Adult Education, published by
the American Association for Adult Education, carried articles by successful
teachers and adults that deviated from the pedagogical model.” Not only were
educators pursuing new ideas about education, but they were sharing these ideas
through the journal of adult education. The 1930s was invaluable to the growth
and development of the terminology and theory surrounding adult education.
American
Association for Adult Education and the Carnegie Corporation
A very prominent and wealthy corporation, the Carnegie
Corporation, was arguably one of the biggest contributors to the adult
education movement and formation. The Carnegie Corporation, more specifically
Andrew Carnegie, played a huge role in funding libraries across the United
States during the early 19th Century. Carnegie wanted libraries that
helped to educate people of all ages. He envisioned libraries offering programs
(much like adult education activities one sees today) that educate members of
the community (Anderson, 1963). Then 1926, the Carnegie Association funded the
American Association for Adult Education(AAAE) (Rose, 2008). The association
was formed with that hopes that it would be different. The idea was that the
association would be based off of community needs and programs would meet those
needs. Although, with the Great Depression, Dust Bowl, and other challenges
this vision was not fully met in the 1930s. Rose (2008) explains the
Association “was grappling with the changing definition of adult education,
what it should do and what its central vision should be.” The very definition
that the Association chose would have lasting impacts on what adult education
meant to the people of the United States still today.
Before the Carnegie Corporation funded the AAAE, adult
education was not considered a serious concrete field of study. According to
Stubblefield (2002) the Carnegie Corporation hoped that the focus of the AAAE
would be “non-vocational adult education, the association sought to advance the
general intelligence and cultural level of the adult population in the arts,
literature, and understanding of public issues.” These goals and association
vision helped to shape research around adult education making it a prominent
field during the 1930s. However, because AAAE’s definition or vision only
included non-vocational education, adults learning in other places (such as the
workplace or other programs) were excluded from the term adult education. The
definition of adult learning has adapted and changed over the decades. Other important
accomplishments of the Carnegie Corporation and AAAE include the Journal of Adult Education being
published and distributed as well as the first Doctoral Program in Adult
Education was established at Columbia University (Stubblefield, 2002). The Carnegie
Corporation and the AAAE paved the way for adult education to grow into the
prominent field it is today.
Myles
Horton and Highlander Folk School
Myles Horton was the founder of Highlander Folk School in
the mountains of Tennessee. Highlander opened the school in 1932 with the
purpose of allowing marginalized, poor individuals education that would lead to
more capable citizens with better qualities of life. During the 1930s,
Highlander focused on bringing all races together to work toward overcoming
racial segregation and discrimination in labor markets, as well as general
society during the Great Depression (Quinn, 2003). Quinn describes Highlander
as “the only place in the South where white and African- American citizens
lived and worked together, something that was illegal in that strictly
segregated society” (2003, p.2). Highlander Education was very influential in
both the labor and civil rights movements.
Not only was Highlander Education influential in terms of
actions taken, but also in the way the curriculum and education was structured
and implemented for adults. Horton believed that the best way to educate the
poor and solve problems was not with an expert but with the people themselves
(Lewis as cited in Horton, 1990). Highlander Education used workshops,
discussion, and student leaders to organize education. This was revolutionary
for the time period and still is today. During this time period, Highlander
Education was vital to promote social change.
Implications
This time period
brought about several challenges as well as changes for the world of adult
education. Adults in America were struggling financially and socially.
Violence, loss of jobs, and drought brought hardships upon American citizens.
However, places like AAAE, Carnegie Corporation, and Highlander Education
provided outlets for struggling Americans to gain and education and find voice
again. These places offered educational opportunities to adults that previously
had not existed. From this time period, educators learned that an expert is not
always needed because the answers can be found within the people of the
community. This time period reminds educators that adult education is a
constantly evolving term.
Finally, the most important lesson this time period has
taught educators is to persevere and tackle even the most challenging problems.
Americans were facing poverty, racism, and violence and yet individuals like
Myles Horton and Andrew Carnegie saw a brighter future through education. These
individuals and the programs they established and supported were catalyst for
the changes that happened in American views during this time period. People of
this time realized that education was the key to unlocking social equality and
reform. Educators of this time also understood that adult education was
different than youth education. Adults needed different methods, structure, and
purpose for education. Overall, the 1930s proved to be a challenging yet
growing decade for the field of adult education.
AREAS
|
SUMMARY
|
Introduction
|
The
1930s was characterized by challenges and stuggles including:
·
The Great Depression
·
The Dust Bowl
·
The New Deal and The Second New Deal
All
of these historical events caused friction amongst Americans and provided
needs that adult education could help solve.
|
Highlights
|
Trends:
·
Scholars begin to differentiate between pedagogy and
andragogy.
·
Adult education becomes a more concrete and known term
in the United States.
·
Adult educations main focus is non-vocational and community
based.
|
Influential
Factors
|
·
The Carnegie Corporation funds the American Association
for Adult Education.
·
Myles Horton founds the school Highlander Education.
|
Implications
|
·
Educators should persevere and use adult education
as an opportunity to solve societal problems.
·
Relying on people themselves (their experiences and
prior knowledge) as a resource is vital.
|
References
Anderson,
F. (1963). Library program: 1911-1961.New
York: Carnegie Corporation.
Henretta,
J.A., Brody, D., & Dumenil, L. (2006). America
a concise history: Volume 2: Since 1865. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins.
Horton,
M. (1990). The long haul: An
autobiography. Doubleday: New York.
Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From
pedagogy to andragogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Merriam,
S. B. & Brockett, R. (2007). The profession and practice of adult education:
An introduction. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN#978-0-470-18153-9
Rose, A. D. (2008). AAACE: where are we going and
where have we been? The future of AAACE in light of its past. Adult Learning,
19(1-2), 34+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA218529655&v=2.1&u=colu64804&it=r&p=GPS&sw=w&asid=c64a78b0dd59136d6272b4c72d31d8f3
Quinn,
T. (2003). Myles Horton. In Encyclopedia of Education. Gale. Retrieved
from http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/bic1/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?query=&prodId=BIC1&contentModules=&displayGroupName=Reference&limiter=&disableHighlighting=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&search_within_results=&p=BIC1&action=2&catId=&activityType=&documentId=GALE%7CK3403200300&source=Bookmark&u=colu64804&jsid=be78e19e45f287f9bc55de14ac53eab7
Stubblefield,
H. W. (2002). Forging a New Mission: Implications from the Experiences of
Antecedent National Associations. Adult Learning, 13(4), 4-6.
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